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Eyeball prolapse (Bulbusprolaps)

Author: Dr. med. vet. Gisa Löwe | Last modified: 06.02.2026

Surgical removal of a prolapsed eyeball (bulbusextierpation)

Healed bulbusextierpation in a Cocker Spaniel puppy

Causes

The main causes of eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. are traumas and anatomical predispositions. Traumas are usually blunt force impacts to the head, such as can occur in traffic accidents, bite incidents, or falls. In this case, the eyeball is pushed forward by the sudden increase in pressure in the retrobulbar tissue.

Brachycephalic (short-headed) dog breeds with shallow orbital cavities are particularly susceptible. In these breeds such as Pugs, French Bulldogs, English Bulldogs, Shih Tzus, Pekingese, and Boston Terriers, even relatively minor traumaA trauma refers to a physical injury or damage caused by external force. Traumas can range from simple cuts to severe multiple injuries. or even just strong pulling on the scruff of the neck can lead to Bulbusprolaps. The anatomical peculiarity of these breeds lies in the shortened skull shape with shallow orbital cavities, which means that the eyeball receives less bony support and is already slightly protruding physiologically (Exophthalmus) in some cases.

Other predisposing factors can be tumors in the area of the orbital cavityThe orbital cavity is a bony structure in the skull that surrounds the eye and its adnexa. It protects the eye and provides attachment points for the eye muscles., inflammatory conditions, or congenitalCongenital means "present from birth" and refers to characteristics or conditions that are already present at birth. This can include genetic disorders, developmental anomalies, or infections transmitted by the mother. anomalies that impair the normal support of the eyeball. In cats, eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. is rarer and almost always caused by traumaA trauma refers to a physical injury or damage caused by external force. Traumas can range from simple cuts to severe multiple injuries., as their orbital cavities are anatomically deeper than in many dog breeds.

Symptoms

Eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. (Bulbusprolaps) in dogs and cats

Typical Symptoms:

Eyeball visibly prolapsed, eyelids “behind” the bulbus. The eye lies with its “equator” outside the orbital cavityThe orbital cavity is a bony structure in the skull that surrounds the eye and its adnexa. It protects the eye and provides attachment points for the eye muscles..
Eyelids “behind” the bulbus. The eyelids are trapped behind the eye, so that the eye cannot slide back on its own.
The Augenlid kann nicht geschlossen werden.
The eyeball may be bloodshot overall.
Severely reddened/swollen conjunctiva, pain, blepharospasm
The eye is highly sensitive to pain.

Alarm signs:

Bulbus is completely in front,
Cornea dull/whitish/dry. The cornea of the eye dries out quickly, so that it appears milky cloudy.
No eyelid closure possible, severe Bleeding/trauma
Suspected optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness. damage (no pupillary reflexThe pupillary reflex is the automatic constriction or dilation of the pupil in response to light. Checking the pupillary reflex is an important part of neurological examinations in animals., Blindness)
Accompanying skull/bite-trauma

Escalation: When to upgrade or see a vet immediately?

Every hour counts: DehydrationDehydration occurs when the body loses more fluid than it takes in. This can lead to a number of problems, including headaches, Dizziness, and in extreme cases, renal failure or Cardiovascular collapse. and poor circulation (ischemiaIschemia refers to an inadequate blood supply to an organ or tissue, leading to a reduction in oxygen and nutrient supply. Ischemia can lead to tissue damage or death if left untreated.) quickly worsen the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop..
Increasing cloudiness and corneal ulcers (ulcerationAn ulceration is an open wound or sore, typically on the skin or mucous membranes, characterized by the loss of surface tissue. Ulcerations in dogs and cats can be caused by infections, chronic inflammatory conditions, or cancer.) within a few hours → drastic worsening of the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop.
In case of additional polytrauma
In case of signs of shock or massive Bleeding.

An eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. is characterized by a characteristic clinical picture. The affected eyeball protrudes clearly from the orbital cavityThe orbital cavity is a bony structure in the skull that surrounds the eye and its adnexa. It protects the eye and provides attachment points for the eye muscles., with the equator of the eye becoming visible and the eyelids trapped behind the eyeball. The conjunctiva typically appears severely reddened, swollen, and may show Bleeding. Since the cornea is no longer moistened by regular blinking, it dries out quickly and becomes milky-cloudy.

Affected animals show clear signs of pain such as Restlessness, vocalizationVocalization is the production of sounds that dogs and cats use to communicate. Changes in vocalization can indicate discomfort, pain, fear, or other emotional states., or rubbing their head on objects. The eye can no longer be closed, which leads to further irritation. Bleeding in the area of the eyeball is also frequently observed, ranging from slight hemorrhages in the conjunctiva to massive bruising.

Depending on the severity of the triggering traumaA trauma refers to a physical injury or damage caused by external force. Traumas can range from simple cuts to severe multiple injuries., further injuries such as skull traumas, fractures of the facial bones, or injuries in the area of the nose and mouth may occur as a result. In severe cases, the optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness. can be stretched or even torn, leading to immediate Blindness. The eye muscles can also be damaged, which restricts the mobility of the eye, even if the eyeball is successfully repositioned.

Special considerations for cats

Rare in cats, mostly due to traumaA trauma refers to a physical injury or damage caused by external force. Traumas can range from simple cuts to severe multiple injuries.. Always consider associated injuries (jaw/skull); transport with minimal stressStress refers to the state of an organism reacting to external stimuli or demands. In veterinary medicine, stress can have physical or psychological effects on animals, impacting their health and well-being..

First Aid

Cover the eye with a moist cotton ball to prevent the cornea from drying out.
Prevent your animal from Scratching the eye.
Do not manipulate the eyeball yourself to move it back.
Do not try to clean the eye.

Diagnosis

The diagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. of an eyeball prolapse is made primaryPrimary refers to the first or original cause of a disease or condition, as opposed to secondary causes or symptoms that develop from it. through the clinical examination. The characteristic appearance with the protruding eyeball and the eyelids trapped behind it is usually clear. Nevertheless, a thorough examination by the veterinarian is essential to assess the extent of the damage and to estimate the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop..

After the initialInitial means beginning or at the start. In medicine, it can refer to the first symptoms of a disease or the first phase of a treatment process. care and stabilization of the patient, a detailed ophthalmological examination is carried out, provided the general condition of the animal allows it. The pupillary reflexThe pupillary reflex is the automatic constriction or dilation of the pupil in response to light. Checking the pupillary reflex is an important part of neurological examinations in animals., the corneal condition and, if possible, the ocular fundusThe ocular fundus refers to the inner part of the eye that can be examined using ophthalmoscopy. It includes the retina, the choroid, and the optic disc. are assessed. A missing direct pupillary reflexThe pupillary reflex is the automatic constriction or dilation of the pupil in response to light. Checking the pupillary reflex is an important part of neurological examinations in animals. may indicate damage to the optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness..

Imaging techniques such as X-rayX-ray is an imaging technique that uses X-rays to create images of the inside of the body. It is often used to diagnose bone fractures, lung diseases, and other conditions. or computed tomography of the skull may be indicated if fractures or intracranialIntracranial refers to anything located within the skull. Intracranial conditions in dogs and cats include Tumors, infections, and cerebral edema, which can cause neurological symptoms. injuries are suspected. UltrasoundUltrasound refers to sound waves that are above the hearing threshold of the human ear. In medicine, ultrasound is used for diagnostic imaging procedures to visualize internal organs, tissues, and blood flow. examinations of the eye can help detect injuries to the intraocular structures that are important for determining the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop..

Differentially, a real Bulbusprolaps must be distinguished from other conditions such as a pronounced exophthalmos due to retrobulbar space-occupying lesions, Inflammatory conditions or edemaAn edema is a buildup of fluid in the body's tissues, leading to Swelling. Edema can be localized or generalized and is often a sign of an underlying condition.. The crucial difference is that in the case of a real prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse., the eyelids are trapped behind the equator of the eyeball.

Further veterinary measures

Go to the vet immediately after the incident.
Keeping the eyeball moist until you arrive at the vet is the most important measure.
The sooner the eye is surgically repositioned under general anesthesia, the better the chances for a full recovery of vision.
If the optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness. is injured, the eyeball must be removed. Your pet’s quality of life will hardly be affected by this.

The treatment of an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. requires a rapid and systematic approach. The initialInitial means beginning or at the start. In medicine, it can refer to the first symptoms of a disease or the first phase of a treatment process. care aims to prevent further damage to the eye. This includes carefully covering the exposed eyeball with a sterile, moist compress or a moist cotton ball to prevent the cornea from drying out. It is important that pet owners do not try to push the eyeball back themselves, as this can lead to further damage.

The definitive therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. takes place under general anesthesiaGeneral anesthesia is a medical procedure that induces unconsciousness and eliminates pain during surgical procedures. It involves the use of anesthetics to temporarily shut down the body's overall perception. and includes the following steps:

First, the eyeball and surrounding tissues are thoroughly cleaned with sterile saline solution to remove foreign bodies and impurities. In case of severe Eyelid edemaAn edema is a buildup of fluid in the body's tissues, leading to Swelling. Edema can be localized or generalized and is often a sign of an underlying condition., a temporary lateralLateral refers to the side of the body or a body part, as opposed to medial, which describes a position closer to the midline of the body. In veterinary medicine, it is used to describe the location of structures or injuries. canthotomy (surgical enlargement of the outer corner of the eye) may be necessary to facilitate repositioning. The veterinarian then performs a careful repositioning of the eyeball by gently, evenly pressing the eyeball back into the orbital cavityThe orbital cavity is a bony structure in the skull that surrounds the eye and its adnexa. It protects the eye and provides attachment points for the eye muscles. while pulling the eyelids over the eyeball.

After successful repositioning, a temporary tarsorrhaphy (eyelid suture) is often performed, in which the eyelids are partially sewn together to hold the eyeball in its position and protect the cornea. This suture usually remains in place for 10–14 days.

Accompanying this is a drug therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. with systemic antibiotics for infectionAn infection is the colonization and multiplication of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites in an organism, which often, but not always, leads to a disease. prophylaxisProphylaxis refers to preventive measures taken to avoid diseases or health problems. In veterinary medicine, this can include vaccinations, regular deworming, and other preventive treatments., analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugsAnti-inflammatory drugs are medications that reduce inflammation. They can be divided into nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids and are used in dogs and cats to reduce Inflammatory conditions and Pain.. Antibiotic and moisturizing eye drops or ointments are applied locally.

In cases with severe damage to the optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness., irreparable injuries to the eyeball, or if repositioning is not possible, enucleationEnucleation is the surgical procedure to remove an eyeball. This may be necessary in cases of severe eye disease, injury, or Tumors to relieve Pain and protect the animal's health. (surgical removal of the eyeball) may be necessary. This decision is made based on the severity of the injury and the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. for the preservation of vision.
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Prognosis and aftercare

The prognosis for an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. depends critically on several factors: the time between the incident and veterinary treatment, the extent of damage to the optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness. and eye muscles, and the cause of the incident. The faster the treatment is given, the better the chances for the preservation of the eye and vision. In general, the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is significantly better if the eyeball is repositioned within 1–2 hours after the incident.

Aftercare includes regular check-ups to assess healing and to detect complications early. The tarsorrhaphy sutures are removed after about 10–14 days. During this time, it is important that the animal wears a neck brace to prevent Scratching the eye.

The drug after-treatment consists of continuing the antibiotic and anti-inflammatory therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. as well as the local application of moisturizing eye drops. If there are signs of complications such as increasing redness, discharge from the eye or deterioration of the general condition, the veterinarian should be consulted immediately.

Long-term consequences can occur despite successful repositioning and include chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. Keratokonjunktivitis sicca (dry eye), corneal ulcers, Strabismus (Squinting) due to damage to the eye muscles or partial to complete Blindness due to damage to the optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness.. Regular ophthalmological check-ups are therefore also recommended after the acute treatment phase has been completed.

Summary

Eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. (Bulbusprolaps) is an ophthalmological emergency that requires immediate action. It occurs particularly frequently in brachycephalic dog breeds and is usually caused by traumas. The characteristic symptoms include the eyeball protruding from the orbital cavityThe orbital cavity is a bony structure in the skull that surrounds the eye and its adnexa. It protects the eye and provides attachment points for the eye muscles. with the eyelids trapped behind it, redness and Swelling of the conjunctiva, and drying out of the cornea.

The initialInitial means beginning or at the start. In medicine, it can refer to the first symptoms of a disease or the first phase of a treatment process. care consists of keeping the eye moist and transporting it to the vet immediately. The definitive therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. takes place under general anesthesiaGeneral anesthesia is a medical procedure that induces unconsciousness and eliminates pain during surgical procedures. It involves the use of anesthetics to temporarily shut down the body's overall perception. and includes the repositioning of the eyeball, if necessary after lateralLateral refers to the side of the body or a body part, as opposed to medial, which describes a position closer to the midline of the body. In veterinary medicine, it is used to describe the location of structures or injuries. canthotomy, and a temporary tarsorrhaphy. In case of severe damage, enucleationEnucleation is the surgical procedure to remove an eyeball. This may be necessary in cases of severe eye disease, injury, or Tumors to relieve Pain and protect the animal's health. may be necessary.

The prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. depends largely on the time of treatment and the extent of the damage. Long-term consequences can occur despite successful treatment and require regular follow-up checks. Preventive measures for owners of predisposed breeds include avoiding collars in favor of harnesses and taking special care during play activities.

Outlook on current research

Current research in the field of eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. focuses on several aspects. On the one hand, improved surgical techniques are being developed that enable gentler repositioning and minimize the risk of consequential damage. These include minimally invasiveInvasive describes medical procedures or pathogens that enter the body or penetrate tissue. In medicine, invasive procedures can range from minimally invasive techniques to open surgery. procedures and special instruments that are specifically designed for the anatomyAnatomy is the scientific study of the structure of living things. It deals with the construction and organization of organisms, including their systems, organs, and tissues. of brachycephalic breeds.

Another focus of research is on the development of new drugs to reduce Swelling and Inflammatory conditions in the area of the eye, which can facilitate repositioning. PostoperativePostoperative refers to the time after a surgical operation. This phase includes recovery and the management of possible complications after the procedure. pain therapy / analgesic therapyPain therapy / analgesic therapy includes methods and medications to relieve Pain in animals. The goal is to improve well-being and increase the quality of life of animals with acute or chronic Pain. is also continuously improved to optimize the healing process.

Genetic research is also gaining in importance, which aims to better understand the anatomical predispositions of brachycephalic breeds and reduce them through targeted breeding programs. This is part of a broader discussion about torture breeding and its health problems.

Last but not least, new materials and techniques are also being researched for the temporary stabilization of the repositioned eyeball, which should enable better healing with improved comfort for the animal at the same time.

Frequently asked questions (FAQs)

What is an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. and how do I recognize it?
An eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. (Bulbusprolaps) occurs when the eyeball has come out of its normal position in the orbital cavityThe orbital cavity is a bony structure in the skull that surrounds the eye and its adnexa. It protects the eye and provides attachment points for the eye muscles. and the eyelids are trapped behind the eyeball. The eye protrudes clearly, the conjunctiva is reddened and swollen, and the animal shows signs of pain.
Which dog breeds are particularly at risk?
Brachycephalic (short-headed) breeds with shallow orbital cavities such as Pugs, French and English Bulldogs, Shih-Tzus, Pekingese and Boston Terriers are particularly at risk.
What should I do if my animal suffers an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse.?
Carefully cover the eye with a moist, clean cloth, prevent the animal from Scratching the eye, and take it to the vet immediately. Do not try to push the eyeball back yourself.
Can a prolapsed eyeball be saved?
Yes, if treatment is given quickly and there is no severe damage to the optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness. or intraocular structures, the eye can often be saved. The prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is better the earlier the treatment is given.
How is an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. treated?
The treatment takes place under general anesthesiaGeneral anesthesia is a medical procedure that induces unconsciousness and eliminates pain during surgical procedures. It involves the use of anesthetics to temporarily shut down the body's overall perception. and includes cleaning, if necessary a lateralLateral refers to the side of the body or a body part, as opposed to medial, which describes a position closer to the midline of the body. In veterinary medicine, it is used to describe the location of structures or injuries. canthotomy, the careful repositioning of the eyeball and usually a temporary tarsorrhaphy (eyelid suture).
What is the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. after an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse.?
The prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. depends on the amount of time until treatment and the extent of the damage. With rapid treatment and minor damage, the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is good; with severe injuries to the optic nerveThe optic nerve is the nerve that connects the retina of the eye to the brain and transmits visual information. Diseases or damage to the optic nerve in dogs and cats can lead to vision loss or blindness., Blindness can result.
Can an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse. be prevented?
In predisposed breeds, precautions such as using harnesses instead of collars and avoiding situations with an increased risk of injury can reduce the risk.
How long does healing take after an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse.?
The acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. healing phase lasts about 2–3 weeks, during which the tarsorrhaphy sutures are left in place. Complete healing and assessment of long-term vision can take several months.
What complications can occur after an eyeball prolapseProlapse refers to the falling out or protrusion of an organ or part of it from its normal position, often through an opening. In animals, this can include, for example, a rectal mucosal prolapse or a vaginal prolapse.?
Possible complications are Keratokonjunktivitis sicca (dry eye), corneal ulcers, Strabismus (Squinting) and partial or complete Blindness.
Can a dog with only one eye live normally?
Yes, dogs usually adapt perfectly to the loss of one eye. They quickly learn to compensate for the altered depth perception and can lead a normal, active life.

Literature

Eule, C. (2019). Der Bulbusprolaps – Ein traumatisches Ereignis. Kleintier konkret, 22(3), 18–25. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0039-1678931
Gould, D., & McLellan, G. J. (2022). BSAVA manual of canine and feline ophthalmology (4. Aufl.). British Small Animal Veterinary Association.
Ledbetter, E. C., & Gilger, B. C. (2021). Diseases and surgery of the canine cornea and sclera. In K. N. Gelatt, G. Ben-Shlomo, B. C. Gilger, D. V. Hendrix, T. J. Kern, & C. E. Plummer (Eds.), Veterinary ophthalmology (6th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
Löwe, G., & Löwe, O. (2021). Notfälle bei Hund und Katze – Ein tierärztlicher Ratgeber. Kynos-Verlag.
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Maggs, D. J., Miller, P. E., & Ofri, R. (2023). Slatter’s fundamentals of veterinary ophthalmology (7. Aufl.). Elsevier.
Reinstein, S. L., & Rankin, A. J. (2020). Management of ocular emergencies in small animals. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 50(6), 1261–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2020.07.002