Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus)
Monkshood (Aconitum napellus) is one of the most poisonous garden plants. Even its Latin name “Aconitum” indicates its lethal effects: in antiquity, it was considered a war poison. Today, monkshood plants are often found in woodland edge plantings, ornamental beds, and as cut flowers in bouquets. For dogs and cats, contact or oral ingestion of even the smallest amount can be fatal. Monkshood poisoning progresses rapidly and leads to severe cardiovascular and CNS disorders. Early detection and immediate treatment are essential to ensure the animal’s survival.
The most important facts at a glance
- Monkshood (Aconitum napellus) is one of the most poisonous native plants.
- As little as 1–2 g of plant material/kg BW can be lethal.
- Taxin A/B blocks sodiumSodium is a vital electrolyte that plays a key role in regulating water balance, blood pressure, and nerve and muscle activity. Unbalanced sodium levels can lead to various health problems in dogs and cats. and calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. channels → arrhythmias, seizures, respiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively. arrest.
- No antidotes available – treatment is purely symptomatic and intensive care-based.
- Early intervention is crucial; prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is better with rapid treatment.
- PreventionPrevention includes measures taken to prevent diseases or injuries. In veterinary medicine, this includes vaccinations, parasite control, and health monitoring. by removing the plant from gardens and educating pet owners.
Causes, development and progression
The skin and mucous membranes of the gastrointestinalGastrointestinal refers to the gastrointestinal tract, a system that extends from the oral cavity to the anus and is responsible for the digestion of food and the absorption of nutrients. tract, as well as the conjunctiva, are particularly damaged.
Among the organ systems, the cardiovascular system, nervous system, and kidneys are primarily affected.
Pets can come into contact with monkshood in various ways:
- Direct oralOral means "through the mouth" and refers to the intake of food, medication, or other substances through the mouth. In veterinary medicine, many treatments are administered orally. ingestion
- While exploring in the garden or park
- By chewing on leaves, flowers, roots, or seeds
- Secondary ingestion
- Eating dead rodents or birds that have ingested plant parts
- Licking contaminatedContaminated describes something that has been polluted by harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or other dangerous substances. In veterinary medicine, this can affect food, water, toys, or the environment. hands or objects after gardening
- Incorrect use as a medicinal plant
- Some owners try to use monkshood homeopathically or naturopathically – a fatal misconception, as even tiny amounts can lead to intoxication.
Puppies are particularly at risk because they like to explore unknown plant parts. Cats, on the other hand, are more selective, but due to their intensive grooming behavior, they can be poisoned by contaminatedContaminated describes something that has been polluted by harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or other dangerous substances. In veterinary medicine, this can affect food, water, toys, or the environment. paws.
Mechanism of action
Aconitine is easily absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes and can quickly reach the brain.
Aconitine initially increases the excitability of nerve cells and later leads to paralysisParalysis is the complete loss of muscle activity in one or more areas of the body, which can lead to immobility and loss of sensation. Paralysis can be caused by injuries, illnesses, or disorders of the nervous system..
Aconitine affects the function of the cardiovascular system, causing a drop in blood pressure, a decrease in heart rate, and cardiac arrhythmias.
The arrhythmias are also partly a consequence of an anticholinergic effect of aconitine. Cardiac arrest is possible.
Supplement
The main active ingredient of monkshood is aconitine, a highly potent diterpene alkaloid. Other related alkaloids include mesaconitine, hypaconitine, and benzoylaconine. These substances primarily exert their toxicityToxicity is the measure of a substance's harmfulness or poisonousness. Toxicity can vary depending on the dose, route of exposure, and individual sensitivity. through the following mechanisms:
- Modulation of voltage-gated sodiumSodium is a vital electrolyte that plays a key role in regulating water balance, blood pressure, and nerve and muscle activity. Unbalanced sodium levels can lead to various health problems in dogs and cats. channels
- Aconitine binds irreversibly to sodiumSodium is a vital electrolyte that plays a key role in regulating water balance, blood pressure, and nerve and muscle activity. Unbalanced sodium levels can lead to various health problems in dogs and cats. channels in nerve cells and cardiomyocytes.
- It prevents their inactivation, leading to a permanent influx of sodiumSodium is a vital electrolyte that plays a key role in regulating water balance, blood pressure, and nerve and muscle activity. Unbalanced sodium levels can lead to various health problems in dogs and cats.
- Result: persistentPersistent means lasting or continuing for an extended period. In veterinary medicine, it can refer to chronic diseases or symptoms that do not subside. depolarization, prolonged refractory periods, severely disturbed chronotropy and dromotropy.
- Cardiovascular Effects
- PersistentPersistent means lasting or continuing for an extended period. In veterinary medicine, it can refer to chronic diseases or symptoms that do not subside. depolarization of cardiomyocytes leads to arrhythmias (extrasystoles, ventricular fibrillationFibrillation is an irregular, often rapid heart rate that leads to a chaotic rhythm in the atria or ventricles of the heart. This can impair cardiac output and often requires medical treatment.) and ultimately cardiac arrest.
- PeripheralPeripheral refers to areas located outside the central part of a system or body. In veterinary medicine, this can refer to peripheral nerves, blood vessels, or tissues that are distant from central organs such as the heart or brain. vasodilation and hypotension due to disturbed smooth vascular musculature.
- Central Nervous SystemThe CNS (central nervous system) consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls most functions of the body and behavior. (CNSCNS stands for the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls many functions of the body.)
- Overexcitation of cholinergic and adrenergic neurons in the CNSCNS stands for the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls many functions of the body. → muscle tremors, seizures, respiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively. paralysisParalysis is the complete loss of muscle activity in one or more areas of the body, which can lead to immobility and loss of sensation. Paralysis can be caused by injuries, illnesses, or disorders of the nervous system..
- Aconitine can cross the blood-brain barrierThe blood-brain barrier is a protective barrier between the blood vessels in the brain and the brain tissue. It prevents most substances in the bloodstream from entering the brain tissue, but allows nutrients and oxygen to pass through.
- Autonomic Dysregulation
- Overstimulation of parasympathetic and sympatheticIn medicine, sympathetic refers to the sympathetic nervous system, a part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses by increasing heart rate and blood pressure, among other things. pathways → salivation, bradycardiaBradycardia refers to a slower than normal heart rate, typically below 60 beats per minute in adults. It can occur in healthy individuals, especially athletes, but can also be an indication of heart disease. or tachycardiaTachycardia refers to an unusually fast heartbeat with a resting heart rate of over 100 beats per minute. It can indicate physical exertion, stress, illness, or heart problems., sweat secretion.
Pharmacokinetics are characterized by rapid absorptionAbsorption refers to the uptake of substances by living cells or tissues. In the context of veterinary medicine, it often refers to the absorption of nutrients, drugs, or toxins from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. (within 10–30 minutes) and wide distribution in the vascular system and tissues. The eliminationElimination refers to the process by which waste products and toxins are removed from the body. This includes excretion via the kidneys (urine), intestines (stool), lungs (breath), and skin. half-life is several hours; the toxins are highly protein-bound.
Symptoms of intoxication
Local irritation of the skin and mucous membranes manifests as
- Drooling
- Vomiting
- DiarrheaDiarrhea refers to the condition of frequent, watery bowel movements, which can be a sign of infections, digestive disorders, or other health problems., sometimes bloody
- AbdominalThe term "abdominal" refers to anything that concerns the belly or the abdomen. It is an adjectival expression used to describe the location, symptoms, or conditions that occur in the abdominal area. cramps.
The effects on the nervous system and heart are
- Restlessness
- Ataxia
- Seizures
- Drop in blood pressure
- Decrease in heart rate
- Cardiac Arrhythmias
- ParalysisParalysis is the complete loss of muscle activity in one or more areas of the body, which can lead to immobility and loss of sensation. Paralysis can be caused by injuries, illnesses, or disorders of the nervous system..
The course of intoxication is rapid. The first symptoms appear within minutes. Death occurs due to respiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively. paralysisParalysis is the complete loss of muscle activity in one or more areas of the body, which can lead to immobility and loss of sensation. Paralysis can be caused by injuries, illnesses, or disorders of the nervous system. or cardiac arrest.
The LD in dogs is 7.5 mg aconitine/kg body weight.
The toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. dose, i.e., the dose at which symptoms are expected, ranges between 2.5 and 5 g of dried plant / kg body weight, depending on the animal’s size.
Supplement
Symptoms often begin within 15–60 minutes after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems. and progress in several phases:
Early Phase (0.25–2 H)
- GastrointestinalGastrointestinal refers to the gastrointestinal tract, a system that extends from the oral cavity to the anus and is responsible for the digestion of food and the absorption of nutrients.: Vomiting, hypersalivation, abdominalThe term "abdominal" refers to anything that concerns the belly or the abdomen. It is an adjectival expression used to describe the location, symptoms, or conditions that occur in the abdominal area. cramps
- CNSCNS stands for the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls many functions of the body.: Restlessness, tremors, coordination disorders
Acute Phase (2–6 H)
- Cardiovascular: TachycardiaTachycardia refers to an unusually fast heartbeat with a resting heart rate of over 100 beats per minute. It can indicate physical exertion, stress, illness, or heart problems. or bradycardiaBradycardia refers to a slower than normal heart rate, typically below 60 beats per minute in adults. It can occur in healthy individuals, especially athletes, but can also be an indication of heart disease., arrhythmic extrasystoles, hypotension
- NeuromuscularNeuromuscular refers to the relationship between nerves and muscles, particularly the transmission of nerve impulses that trigger muscle contraction. Neuromuscular disorders can affect movement and coordination in animals.: Muscle cramps, ataxia, tremor
Crisis (6–12 H)
- Cardiovascular: Ventricular fibrillationFibrillation is an irregular, often rapid heart rate that leads to a chaotic rhythm in the atria or ventricles of the heart. This can impair cardiac output and often requires medical treatment., AV block, cardiac arrest
- RespiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively.: RespiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively. paralysisParalysis is the complete loss of muscle activity in one or more areas of the body, which can lead to immobility and loss of sensation. Paralysis can be caused by injuries, illnesses, or disorders of the nervous system., cyanosis
- CNSCNS stands for the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls many functions of the body.: ComaA coma is a deep state of unconsciousness where an individual cannot be awakened and does not respond to stimuli. In dogs and cats, it can be caused by severe illnesses, poisoning, or neurological problems., loss of consciousness
Late Phase (>12 H)
- Organ compromise due to hypoxiaHypoxia refers to a condition in which the body or a part of the body is not supplied with enough oxygen. This can lead to various symptoms, including shortness of breath, confusion, and in severe cases, organ failure.
- Multi-organ failureMultiple organ failure is a serious condition in which several vital organ systems fail simultaneously. In dogs and cats, this can be caused by severe illness, injury, or as a result of toxicity, and is often life-threatening.
Without immediate treatment, the poisoning is usually fatal.
Diagnosis
The diagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. is based on medical historyThe medical history is the systematic collection of a patient's medical history through questioning. It includes information about previous illnesses, treatments, allergies, and lifestyle habits., hospital, and laboratory and cardiological findings:
- History
- Time spent in the garden, discovery of plant parts
- Temporal correlation with symptom onset
- Clinical Examination
- Vomiting, salivation, mydriasis
- Heart rate and rhythm, mucous membranes
- ECG
- Detection of arrhythmias, extrasystoles, AV block
- Laboratory
- ElectrolytesElectrolytes are minerals in the body that carry an electric charge and perform vital functions such as regulating fluid balance, acid-base balance, and nerve and muscle activity. The main electrolytes include sodium, potassium, chloride, and magnesium., blood gases (metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders.)
- Liver enzymesEnzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate specific chemical reactions in the body without being consumed. They play a crucial role in virtually all physiological processes., creatinineCreatinine is a waste product that results from the breakdown of creatine, a chemical compound that provides energy in the muscles. The concentration of creatinine in the blood and urine is an important indicator of kidney function. (secondary damage)
- Toxicological Evidence
- Aconitine levels in serumSerum is the liquid part of the blood that remains after coagulation. It does not contain blood cells or coagulation factors, but many other proteins, antibody and electrolytes. Serum is used in diagnostics for a variety of blood tests., urine, or stomach contents (specialized laboratory)
If poisoning is suspected, treatment should begin immediately, even before toxinA toxin is a poison produced by living cells or organisms that can be harmful to the body upon contact or ingestion. Toxins can originate from bacteria, plants, animals, or fungi. screening results are available.
Therapeutic principles
Monkshood intoxications are often fatal.
There is no specific antidoteAn antidote is a substance used to neutralize or reverse the harmful effects of poisoning or a drug overdose. Antidotes can be specific to certain poisons or have more general detoxifying effects..
The fastest possible decontaminationDecontamination refers to the removal of toxic substances or pathogens from a living being, object, or environment to prevent or treat poisoning or infection. is the most important, potentially life-saving measure.
Since the toxinA toxin is a poison produced by living cells or organisms that can be harmful to the body upon contact or ingestion. Toxins can originate from bacteria, plants, animals, or fungi. can also be absorbed through the skin, thorough cleaning of the fur and skin is particularly important for decontaminationDecontamination refers to the removal of toxic substances or pathogens from a living being, object, or environment to prevent or treat poisoning or infection..
Thorough showering and shampooing of the animal also protects the pet owner from direct skin contact with the plant toxinA toxin is a poison produced by living cells or organisms that can be harmful to the body upon contact or ingestion. Toxins can originate from bacteria, plants, animals, or fungi..
Gloves should be worn.
Inducing vomiting, gastric lavage, repeated doses of activated charcoalActivated charcoal is a fine-pored, highly adsorbing material commonly used in veterinary medicine to treat poisoning. It binds toxins in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent their absorption into the body., and acceleration of intestinalIntestinal refers to the intestine, the part of the digestive tract that extends from the stomach to the anus. Intestinal diseases affect the small and/or large intestine. transit are indicated.
Protective measures for the personnel involved must also be considered. Direct contact with vomit and similar substances must be strictly avoided.
Symptomatic therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. may begin with resuscitationResuscitation includes measures to revive animals after a cardiac arrest or severe respiratory depression. These may include chest compressions and artificial respiration. and then primarily focuses on treating cardiac arrhythmias.
Supplement
There is no specific antidoteAn antidote is a substance used to neutralize or reverse the harmful effects of poisoning or a drug overdose. Antidotes can be specific to certain poisons or have more general detoxifying effects. against aconitine. Treatment is purely symptomatic and intensive care-based:
1. Immediate Measures
- Induce vomiting (≥ 15 minutes post-intoxication, no airway risk)
- Activated charcoalActivated charcoal is a fine-pored, highly adsorbing material commonly used in veterinary medicine to treat poisoning. It binds toxins in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent their absorption into the body. (1–3 g/kg p.o.), repeatedly every 4 to 6 h
- Gastric lavageLavage is a rinsing procedure that uses a liquid to clean a body cavity, organ, or wound. In veterinary medicine, lavage can be used, for example, for gastric lavage or to clean an infected wound. for high doses and stable circulation
2. Cardiac Stabilization
- Atropine (0.02–0.04 mg/kg i.v.) for bradycardiaBradycardia refers to a slower than normal heart rate, typically below 60 beats per minute in adults. It can occur in healthy individuals, especially athletes, but can also be an indication of heart disease.
- Lidocaine (2 mg/kg i.v.) or procainamide for ventricular arrhythmias
- MagnesiumMagnesium is a vital mineral that plays a role in various bodily functions, including muscle and nerve function, blood sugar control, and blood pressure regulation. In dogs and cats, a magnesium deficiency can lead to health problems. sulfate (20–40 mg/kg i.v.) for ventricular fibrillationFibrillation is an irregular, often rapid heart rate that leads to a chaotic rhythm in the atria or ventricles of the heart. This can impair cardiac output and often requires medical treatment.
3. Neurological Control
- Benzodiazepines (e.g., Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg) for seizures
- Barbiturates (Phenobarbital) for refractory seizures
- Mannitol or Hypertonic NaCl (3%) for reduction of cerebral edemaAn edema is a buildup of fluid in the body's tissues, leading to Swelling. Edema can be localized or generalized and is often a sign of an underlying condition.
4. Intensive Care Support
- Fluid therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. (Ringer’s lactate, 10–20 ml/kg/h)
- Vasopressors (e.g., DopamineDopamine is a neurotransmitter found in various parts of the brain and plays a role in regulating movement, motivation, emotional pleasure, and reward.) for refractory hypotension
- Ventilation for respiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively. insufficiencyInsufficiency refers to the inadequate function or performance of an organ or system. This can include, for example, heart failure, kidney failure, or venous insufficiency.
5. Additional Measures
- Cardiac monitoring (continuous ECG)
- Blood gas analysis, electrolyte monitoring every 2–4 h
- Circulatory monitoring, urine output
The experimental use of anticonvulsive immunotherapy (antibodies against aconitine) is only available in specialized clinics, but so far without practical evidence.
Prognosis & follow-up care
Aconitine intoxications are often fatal and sometimes lead to the animal’s death just a few hours after toxin ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems..
The prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is guarded to poor, depending on the dose and the time until treatment:
| Parameter | PrognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. |
| < 2 g needles/kg BW | Rather favorable with rapid therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. |
| > 2 g needles/kg BW | High mortalityMortality is the death rate within a population over a specific period. It is often used to assess the severity of diseases or the effectiveness of health measures. |
| Symptoms > 2 h untreated | Very unfavorable |
Aftercare:
- Inpatient monitoring for at least 48 hours
- Continuous ECG and circulatory monitoring
- Electrolyte and blood gas monitoring every 4–6 h
- Support for liver and kidneys in case of secondary damage
- Possibly physiotherapeutic support after neurological deficits
Research outlook
Current research approaches for improving diagnosis and treatment:
- AntidoteAn antidote is a substance used to neutralize or reverse the harmful effects of poisoning or a drug overdose. Antidotes can be specific to certain poisons or have more general detoxifying effects. Development
- Search for high-affinity aconitine antibodies
- Molecular inhibitors for sodiumSodium is a vital electrolyte that plays a key role in regulating water balance, blood pressure, and nerve and muscle activity. Unbalanced sodium levels can lead to various health problems in dogs and cats. channel binding
- Pharmacokinetic Studies
- AbsorptionAbsorption refers to the uptake of substances by living cells or tissues. In the context of veterinary medicine, it often refers to the absorption of nutrients, drugs, or toxins from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. and eliminationElimination refers to the process by which waste products and toxins are removed from the body. This includes excretion via the kidneys (urine), intestines (stool), lungs (breath), and skin. profiles across different ages, breeds, sexes
- Rapid Tests
- Point-of-care detection of aconitine in blood or urine
- Clinical Studies
- Optimization of antiarrhythmic protocols
- Comparison of benzodiazepines vs. barbiturates in seizure management
- PreventionPrevention includes measures taken to prevent diseases or injuries. In veterinary medicine, this includes vaccinations, parasite control, and health monitoring.
- Development of safe garden plant alternatives
- Educational campaigns for dog and cat owners
Frequently asked questions (FAQs)
- Is the entire monkshood plant poisonous?
Yes, leaves, flowers, seeds, roots – only the red aril is non-toxic. - How quickly do the first symptoms appear?
Often within 15–60 minutes after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems.. - How much monkshood is lethal?
As little as 1–2 g of plant material per kilogram of body weight in dogs. - What to do if poisoning is suspected?
Seek veterinary attention immediately, induce vomiting only if instructed, activated charcoalActivated charcoal is a fine-pored, highly adsorbing material commonly used in veterinary medicine to treat poisoning. It binds toxins in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent their absorption into the body.. - Is there an antidoteAn antidote is a substance used to neutralize or reverse the harmful effects of poisoning or a drug overdose. Antidotes can be specific to certain poisons or have more general detoxifying effects.?
No, treatment is purely symptomatic and intensive care-based. - Which symptoms appear first?
Vomiting, salivation, muscle tremors, followed by cardiac arrhythmias. - Can my pet fully recover?
Yes, with very early and intensive therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions., recovery chances exist. - Are cats also at risk?
Yes, cats can be poisoned by licking contaminatedContaminated describes something that has been polluted by harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or other dangerous substances. In veterinary medicine, this can affect food, water, toys, or the environment. paws. - How can I prevent poisoning?
Do not plant monkshood in the garden or make it inaccessible to pets. - Will there be long-term damage?
If the acute phase is overcome without organ damage, there are usually no long-term consequences.
Literature
- https://www.vetpharm.uzh.ch/giftdb/pflanzen/0004_tvm.
- Stetzenbach, M., Schnorbus, B., Sagoschen, I., Bleser, W., Legner, D., & Stürer, A. (2017). AcuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. Monkshood Intoxication Requiring ResuscitationResuscitation includes measures to revive animals after a cardiac arrest or severe respiratory depression. These may include chest compressions and artificial respiration. with Suicidal Intent. AINS-Anästhesiologie· Intensivmedizin· Notfallmedizin· Schmerztherapie, 52(09), 641–644.
- Müller, M. (2019). Dangerous Garden Plants for Pets: An Overview. Vet Journal, 33(4), pp. 112–117.
- White, D. (2020). CardiotoxicCardiotoxic describes substances or influences that are harmful to the heart. Cardiotoxic effects can impair heart function and lead to various heart problems. Plants and Their Effects on Dogs and Cats. Veterinary Botany, 24(2), pp. 56–61.
- Gwaltney-Brant, S. (2012): ToxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. plants. In: Peterson, M.E.; Talcott, P.A. (eds.): Small Animal Toxicology, 3rd ed., Elsevier, pp. 364–377.
- Cope, R.B. (2005): Aconitum species poisoning in domestic animals. In: Gupta, R. (ed.): Veterinary Toxicology, Academic Press, pp. 507–512.
- Dorman, D.C. (2010): Pharmacokinetics and toxicity of aconitine alkaloids. Vet Hum Toxicol, 52(4), 242–247.
- Cortinovis, C.; Caloni, F. (2013): Plants poisonous to dogs and cats: a review. Toxins, 5(6), 1171–1192. doi: 10.3390/toxins5061171
- Knight, A.; Walter, R. (2001): A Guide to Poisonous House and Garden Plants, Teton NewMedia, Jackson (WY).
- Löwe G, Löwe O. Poisoning in Dogs and Cats – A Veterinary Guide. 2nd edition. Kreuztal: Kynos-Verlag. 2021; 208 p.