Foreign body in the nose
Foreign Body in the Nose
A foreign body in the nose is a particle in the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. passages, often grass awns or plant parts. Typical signs include sudden sneezing, nose rubbing, one-sided nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. discharge, and sometimes bleeding. If lodged deeply, it can cause difficulty breathing or chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. inflammation.
The anatomyAnatomy is the scientific study of the structure of living things. It deals with the construction and organization of organisms, including their systems, organs, and tissues. of the nose in dogs and cats differs significantly from the human nose. Both species have a complex nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. structure with extensive turbinates and a highly developed olfactory epitheliumEpithelium is a type of tissue that lines the surfaces of the body, as well as internal cavities and ducts. Epithelial tissue serves as a protective barrier, is involved in secretion, and can have sensory functions.. The nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. cavity is divided into two halves by a bony septum and connects to the pharynxThe pharynx is the part of the neck behind the oral cavity and nose. It serves as a passage / transit for air and food and plays an important role in breathing and swallowing. via the choanae (paired openings in the nasopharynxThe nasopharynx is the upper part of the pharynx behind the nose and above the soft palate. It connects the nasal cavities to the throat and plays an important role in breathing and swallowing in dogs and cats.). These anatomical features make our pets’ noses particularly susceptible to foreign body penetrationPenetration describes the entry or permeation of a substance or organism into a body or material. In medicine, it can refer to the penetration of microorganisms into tissues or the insertion of instruments into the body., but also more difficult to access for removal. While dogs have a longer nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. cavity with more space for turbinates, cats have a more compact nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. structure. Brachycephalic (short-headed) breeds such as pugs or Persian cats have an increased risk of complications from nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies due to their shortened nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. passages.
Causes
The most common foreign bodies in the nose of dogs and cats are of plant origin. In particular, awns and ears of grasses such as wild oats pose a significant problem because their barbs cause them to migrate forward in a directed manner and they cannot be easily pulled back. Other plant parts such as seed heads, small branches or leaves can also get into the nose during intensive sniffing. In cats, insects are also potential foreign bodies that can get into the nose while hunting or playing.
Certain breeds and age groups show an increased predispositionA predisposition is an innate inclination or susceptibility of an organism to certain diseases or conditions. In dogs and cats, there may be a genetic predisposition to certain conditions such as hip dysplasia or certain heart diseases. for nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies. Hunting dogs with long snouts are particularly at risk due to their pronounced sniffing behavior. Seasonal clusters typically occur in summer and early autumn when grasses form their seeds. During this time, the incidenceIncidence refers to the number of new cases of a disease or condition that occur within a specific time period in a specific population group. It provides information about the risk of contracting the disease. of nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies increases significantly in veterinary practices. The environmental risk varies depending on the habitat – dogs and cats that spend most of their time in meadows, fields or forest areas are more at risk than purely indoor pets or animals in urban environments.
Symptoms
Foreign body in the nose in dogs and cats
Typical Symptoms:
- Itching associated with scratching at nose
- Sudden sneezing, nose rubbing, “snorkeling”
- Unilateral watery nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. discharge, initially clear, later possibly mucous, purulentPurulent refers to pus or the production of pus, which may indicate a bacterial infection. Purulent inflammatory conditions are often painful and may have significant swelling and redness. or partially bloody
- possibly gagging,
- Often after meadow/grass contact (awns)
Alarm signs:
- Unilateral bleeding (epistaxis), severe shortness of breath/stridor
- Severe pain reaction, persistentPersistent means lasting or continuing for an extended period. In veterinary medicine, it can refer to chronic diseases or symptoms that do not subside. sneezing attacks
- Foul-smelling, purulent-bloody discharge (chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time.)
Escalation/course:
- Hours: Mucosal swelling → increasing obstructionobstruction refers to the blockage or narrowing of a hollow organ or canal, which hinders the normal flow of liquids or gases. In dogs and cats, an obstruction can occur in the digestive tract, airways, or urinary tract and often requires immediate medical treatment.
- Days: secondary infectionA secondary infection occurs when an already weakened individual suffers an additional infection, often because the immune system is impaired by the primary infection., purulentPurulent refers to pus or the production of pus, which may indicate a bacterial infection. Purulent inflammatory conditions are often painful and may have significant swelling and redness. discharge
- Weeks: chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. rhinitis/fistula possible if foreign body remains
The symptomatologySymptomatology refers to the entirety of symptoms associated with a particular disease or condition. It describes how a disease manifests itself externally. of foreign bodies in the nose usually develops acutely and can vary depending on the location, type of foreign body and duration of stay. The characteristic early symptoms include sudden, violent and repeated sneezing, often accompanied by pawing at the nose and head shaking. These symptoms are an expression of the foreign body irritation on the sensitive nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. mucosaMucosa, also called mucous membrane, refers to the moist lining of body cavities that are connected to the outside world, such as the mouth, nose, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. It serves to protect and facilitate the absorption of nutrients..
In the further course, a nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. discharge typically develops, which is initially serous (clear) and can become mucopurulent (mucous-purulent) or hemorrhagicHemorrhagic refers to anything related to Bleeding. In medicine, it describes conditions or events that are caused by or characterized by Bleeding, such as hemorrhagic Fever. (bloody) if the foreign body remains in place for a longer period of time. An important diagnostic feature is the unilaterality of the symptoms – the discharge mostly only affects the nostril in which the foreign body is located.
Special considerations for cats
In cats, a characteristic snorkeling or rattling may also occur. Behavioral changes such as loss of appetite, lethargy or restlessness can accompany the local symptoms. In the advanced stage, secondary infections with increased pus formation, swelling of the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. mucosaMucosa, also called mucous membrane, refers to the moist lining of body cavities that are connected to the outside world, such as the mouth, nose, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. It serves to protect and facilitate the absorption of nutrients. and chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. rhinitis can occur. If the foreign body remains for a longer period of time, tissue damage, ulcerationAn ulceration is an open wound or sore, typically on the skin or mucous membranes, characterized by the loss of surface tissue. Ulcerations in dogs and cats can be caused by infections, chronic inflammatory conditions, or cancer. of the mucous membrane and, in severe cases, the formation of nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. abscesses or fistulous tracts can occur. In cases of chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. unilateral nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. discharge, consider a foreign body/polyp/tumor.
First Aid
- If you can see the foreign body in the front of the nose, try to grasp it with a pair of tweezers that are not too pointed and pull it out.
- Do not try to grasp “blindly” with tweezers without being able to see the foreign body.
- Do not use a cotton swab. You would only push the foreign body deeper into the nose.
If you are unsuccessful, take your animal to a veterinarian.
When should you see a vet sooner?
→ Orange for significant respiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively. distress, severe unilateral bleeding, or marked general deterioration.
Diagnosis
The diagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. of a nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign body begins with a thorough medical historyThe medical history is the systematic collection of a patient's medical history through questioning. It includes information about previous illnesses, treatments, allergies, and lifestyle habits., in which the pet owner is asked about sudden sneezing, unilateral nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. discharge, and behavioral changes. Information about possible triggers, such as walks in tall grass or observed sniffing in plants, is particularly important.
The clinical examination includes careful inspection of the nostrils with a strong light source, whereby superficially located foreign bodies are sometimes directly visible in cooperative animals. PalpationPalpation is an examination method in which the condition of body tissues is assessed by feeling them with the hands. It is used to identify swelling, pain, or other abnormalities. of the nose can provide information about swelling or pain. In addition, attention is paid to asymmetries, deformities and the quality of the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. discharge.
Further diagnostics are required in most cases. Rhinoscopyrhinoscopy is a diagnostic procedure in which the nasal cavities are examined with a rhinoscope, a special endoscope. It is used to identify foreign bodies, Tumors, Inflammatory conditions, and other anomalies in the nose. is the method of choice. With a rigid or flexible endoscope, the nasal cavity can be examined under sedationSedation refers to the state of calming or suppressing the central nervous system with medication, which reduces anxiety and irritability and sometimes induces a light sleep. or general anesthesiaGeneral anesthesia is a medical procedure that induces unconsciousness and eliminates pain during surgical procedures. It involves the use of anesthetics to temporarily shut down the body's overall perception., whereby foreign bodies can be directly visualized and often removed. Imaging techniques such as X-rays of the skull can be helpful, whereby radiopaque foreign bodies can be directly identified and radiolucent materials indirectly through secondary changes such as shadows or fluid accumulations. In more complex cases, computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)Magnetic resonance imaging is an imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the inside of the body. It is used in veterinary medicine to diagnose diseases of the brain, spine, and other organs. may be necessary to determine the exact location and extent of the problem.
Further veterinary measures
The therapy for nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies is primarily aimed at completely removing the foreign material. In the case of superficially visible foreign bodies, a careful extraction with fine tweezers under good lighting can be attempted in some cases. However, this measure should only be carried out on cooperative animals and clearly visible foreign bodies in order to avoid injuries or pushing them in deeper.
In most cases, professional veterinary treatment under sedationSedation refers to the state of calming or suppressing the central nervous system with medication, which reduces anxiety and irritability and sometimes induces a light sleep. or general anesthesia is required. Rhinoscopyrhinoscopy is a diagnostic procedure in which the nasal cavities are examined with a rhinoscope, a special endoscope. It is used to identify foreign bodies, Tumors, Inflammatory conditions, and other anomalies in the nose. with special endoscopes not only allows visualization but also the targeted removal of the foreign body with endoscopic instruments such as forceps or baskets. For deeper or more complex foreign bodies, a surgical approach may be necessary, with various techniques such as rhinotomy or an approach via the maxillary sinus being considered, depending on the location.
After the foreign body has been removed, medication is usually given for follow-up treatment. This includes antibiotics if there is a secondary infectionA secondary infection occurs when an already weakened individual suffers an additional infection, often because the immune system is impaired by the primary infection., anti-inflammatory drugsAnti-inflammatory drugs are medications that reduce inflammation. They can be divided into nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids and are used in dogs and cats to reduce Inflammatory conditions and Pain. to reduce mucosal swelling and analgesics for pain. NasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. rinses with physiological saline solution can help to flush out any remaining secretions or small foreign body fragments and promote healing.
Prognosis and aftercare
The prognosis for nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies is generally good if complete removal is successful and there is no serious secondary damage. The timing of the intervention is crucial for the success of the treatment – the earlier the foreign body is removed, the lower the risk of complications and permanent damage.
Careful aftercare is important after the foreign body has been removed. This includes the consistent administration of the prescribed medication and regular check-ups with the veterinarian. In the first few days after treatment, the animal should be kept calm and protected from stressStress refers to the state of an organism reacting to external stimuli or demands. In veterinary medicine, stress can have physical or psychological effects on animals, impacting their health and well-being.. The nostrils should be checked regularly for renewed discharge or signs of infectionAn infection is the colonization and multiplication of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites in an organism, which often, but not always, leads to a disease..
Possible complications that may require further treatment include persistentPersistent means lasting or continuing for an extended period. In veterinary medicine, it can refer to chronic diseases or symptoms that do not subside. infections, chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. rhinitis, nosebleeds, or the formation of granulation tissue. In rare cases, structural damage to the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. turbinates or the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. septum can occur, which can lead to permanent impairment of nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. function. However, if the foreign body is removed in a timely and complete manner, a full recovery can be expected in most cases.
Summary
Foreign bodies in the nose are a common problem in dogs and cats, caused by various materials – mainly of plant origin. The anatomical features of our pets’ noses make them susceptible to the penetrationPenetration describes the entry or permeation of a substance or organism into a body or material. In medicine, it can refer to the penetration of microorganisms into tissues or the insertion of instruments into the body. of such foreign bodies, especially during certain seasons and in certain environments. The characteristic symptoms include sudden sneezing, unilateral nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. discharge, and behavioral changes such as pawing at the nose.
The diagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. is made through a combination of medical historyThe medical history is the systematic collection of a patient's medical history through questioning. It includes information about previous illnesses, treatments, allergies, and lifestyle habits., clinical examination and further diagnostics such as rhinoscopy or imaging techniques. The therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. aims at the complete removal of the foreign body, which is usually done under sedationSedation refers to the state of calming or suppressing the central nervous system with medication, which reduces anxiety and irritability and sometimes induces a light sleep. or anesthesiaAnesthesia refers to the state of insensitivity to pain and can be partial (local anesthesia) or for the entire body (general anesthesia). It is used to keep patients pain-free during surgical procedures. using rhinoscopyrhinoscopy is a diagnostic procedure in which the nasal cavities are examined with a rhinoscope, a special endoscope. It is used to identify foreign bodies, Tumors, Inflammatory conditions, and other anomalies in the nose.. Subsequent drug treatment may be necessary to combat secondary infections and promote healing.
With timely intervention, the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is generally good, with careful aftercare and monitoring being important to detect possible complications early. Preventive measures such as avoiding risk areas during the peak season for grass seeds can help reduce the occurrence of nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies.
Outlook on current research
Current research in the field of nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies in small animals focuses on several aspects. Improved imaging techniques such as high-resolution CT scans and specialized MRI protocols enable more precise localization and characterization of foreign bodies, which optimizes the planning of removal. Advances in endoscopic technology are leading to miniaturized instruments with better optics and maneuverability that can also reach hard-to-reach areas of the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. cavity.
New approaches in postoperativePostoperative refers to the time after a surgical operation. This phase includes recovery and the management of possible complications after the procedure. treatment include the development of local antibiotic release systems that can be placed directly in the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. cavity to treat infections more specifically and reduce systemic side effects. Research into the regeneration of the nasal mucosaMucosa, also called mucous membrane, refers to the moist lining of body cavities that are connected to the outside world, such as the mouth, nose, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. It serves to protect and facilitate the absorption of nutrients. after foreign body injuries could help to minimize chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. sequelae in the future.
Another research focus is on the development of preventive strategies, such as special nose protectionProtection refers to safeguarding against diseases or harm. In veterinary medicine, this can include protecting animals through vaccinations, the use of parasite control products, or providing a safe environment. devices for particularly endangered dog breeds during the high-risk season or improved training methods to reduce sniffing in high-risk areas.
Frequently asked questions (FAQs)
- How can I tell if my pet has a foreign body in its nose?
Look for sudden, violent sneezing, unilateral nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. discharge, pawing at the nose, and head shaking. It is particularly suspicious if these symptoms occur immediately after being in tall grass or after intensive sniffing. - Which animals are particularly at risk for nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies?
Hunting dogs with long snouts are particularly at risk due to their intensive sniffing behavior, as are young, curious animals and animals that spend a lot of time outdoors, especially in areas with tall grass or wild plants. - Can I remove a nasal foreign body myself?
Only if the foreign body is clearly visible in the front of the nose and your animal is cooperative can you carefully try to remove it with fine tweezers. If the foreign body is deeper or there is resistanceResistance refers to the ability of microorganisms to withstand the effects of antibiotics, antifungals, or other antimicrobial drugs. Resistance can also refer to the body's ability to be insensitive to diseases or toxins., you should definitely consult a veterinarian to avoid injuries. - How urgent is a visit to the vet if a nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign body is suspected?
A nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign body should be examined by a veterinarian within 24 hours. In the event of severe nosebleeds, significant shortness of breath or visible impairment of general condition, an immediate emergency visit is indicated. - What complications can occur with untreated nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies?
Untreated nasal foreign bodies can lead to chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. infections, abscess formation, fistulous tracts, structural damage to the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. mucosaMucosa, also called mucous membrane, refers to the moist lining of body cavities that are connected to the outside world, such as the mouth, nose, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. It serves to protect and facilitate the absorption of nutrients. and turbinates, and, in severe cases, infections of the paranasal sinuses or the brain. - Is anesthesia always necessary to remove a nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign body?
In most cases, yes. SedationSedation refers to the state of calming or suppressing the central nervous system with medication, which reduces anxiety and irritability and sometimes induces a light sleep. or general anesthesia is necessary to avoid Pain, enable a thorough examination, and ensure the safe removal of the foreign body without injury. - How can I prevent foreign bodies in my pet’s nose?
During the peak season for grass seeds (summer/early autumn), avoid walking through tall, dry grass. Regularly inspect your pet’s coat after excursions and watch for unusual sneezing or nose rubbing. - Can nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies come out on their own?
Most foreign bodies, especially plant parts with barbs, tend to move deeper into the nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. cavity rather than out and cause increasing problems. Therefore, veterinary removal is usually necessary. - How long does it take to recover after a nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign body has been removed?
In uncomplicated cases and with complete removal, the symptoms often subside within a few days. Complete healing of the mucous membrane can take 1–2 weeks, depending on the severity of the injury.
Are certain breeds more susceptible to nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. foreign bodies?
Hunting dogs such as Beagles, Setters or Retrievers are particularly at risk due to their intensive sniffing behavior. In brachycephalic breeds such as Pugs or Persian cats, foreign bodies are less likely to penetrate, but often cause more severe symptoms due to the already restricted nasalNasal refers to the nose and nasal cavities. In veterinary medicine, this can involve examinations, treatments, or diseases affecting the nose of dogs and cats. passages.
Literature
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- Lobetti, R. G. (2021). A retrospective study of chronic nasal disease in 75 dogs. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association, 85(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.4102/jsava.v85i1.1110
- Löwe, G., & Löwe, O. (2021). Notfälle bei Hund und Katze – Ein tierärztlicher Ratgeber (208 S.). Kynos-Verlag.
- Meler, E., Dunn, M., & Lecuyer, M. (2018). A retrospective study of canine persistent nasal disease: 80 cases (1998–2003). Canadian Veterinary Journal, 49(1), 71–76.
- Merck & Co. (2020). Merck veterinary manual (11th ed.). Merck Publishing.
- Oechtering, G. U., Pohl, S., Schlueter, C., & Schuenemann, R. (2016). A novel approach to brachycephalic syndrome: Laser-assisted turbinectomy (LATE). Veterinary Surgery, 45(2), 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1111/vsu.12439
- Silverstein, D. C., & Hopper, K. (2014). Small animal critical care medicine (2. Aufl.). Elsevier.
- Tasker, S., Knottenbelt, C. M., Munro, E. A., Stonehewer, J., Simpson, J. W., & Mackin, A. J. (2019). Aetiology and diagnosis of persistent nasal disease in the dog: A retrospective study of 42 cases. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 40(10), 473–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.1999.tb03020.x
- Tenwolde, A. C., Johnson, L. R., Hunt, G. B., Vernau, W., & Zwingenberger, A. L. (2010). The role of bronchoscopy in foreign body removal in dogs and cats: 37 cases (2000–2008). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 24(5), 1063–1068. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0574.x