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Antifreeze (Ethylene Glycol)

Author: Dr. med. vet. Gisa Löwe | Last modified: 06.11.2025

Ethylene glycol (EG) is a colorless, odorless, sweet-tasting liquid found mainly in antifreeze, coolants, brake fluids, and some household cleaners. Approximately 2,941,000 tons of ethylene glycol are produced annually in Western Europe, which highlights the widespread use of this substance. Ethylene glycol poisoning is one of the most dangerous and common intoxications in dogs and cats, especially during the winter months.

The toxicological mechanism of action is not based on ethylene glycol itself, but on its metabolites, which are formed during metabolism in the liver. The enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) first converts ethylene glycol into glycolaldehyde, which is then metabolized into glycolic acid, glyoxylic acid, and finally oxalic acid. These metabolites, especially oxalic acid, are responsible for the severe organ damage.

Particularly noteworthy is the difference in sensitivity between dogs and cats. While the minimum lethal dose for dogs is approximately 6.6 ml/kg body weight, cats are significantly more sensitive with a lethal dose of only 1.5 ml/kg body weight. For an average cat, this already corresponds to one teaspoon of antifreeze.

The most important facts at a glance

Ethylene glycol poisoning is one of the most dangerous intoxications in dogs and cats. The sweet taste of the substance contained in antifreeze makes it attractive to animals, while its high toxicityToxicity is the measure of a substance's harmfulness or poisonousness. Toxicity can vary depending on the dose, route of exposure, and individual sensitivity. can lead to life-threatening conditions even in small amounts. Cats are particularly sensitive, with just one teaspoon of antifreeze potentially being fatal.

The course of poisoning is characterized by three phases: first, neurological symptoms similar to alcohol poisoning, followed by cardiopulmonary problems and metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders., and finally acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment. due to the deposition of calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. oxalate crystals in the kidneys. DiagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. is based on anamnesis, clinical symptoms, specific blood tests, and the detection of characteristic calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. oxalate crystals in the urine.

TherapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. must be initiated as quickly as possible and includes decontaminationDecontamination refers to the removal of toxic substances or pathogens from a living being, object, or environment to prevent or treat poisoning or infection., specific antidoteAn antidote is a substance used to neutralize or reverse the harmful effects of poisoning or a drug overdose. Antidotes can be specific to certain poisons or have more general detoxifying effects. administration (ethanol or fomepizole), and intensive medical care. The prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. critically depends on the timing of treatment initiation, with the window of opportunity for successful treatment being significantly shorter in cats than in dogs.

Preventive measures such as the safe storage of ethylene glycol-containing products, immediate cleanup of spills, and the use of alternative, less toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. propylene glycol-based antifreeze can help prevent this dangerous poisoning. In case of suspected ethylene glycol intoxication, immediate veterinary action is life-saving.

Causes, development and progression

Ethylene glycol tastes sweet, which is why dogs, in particular, readily ingest it, and it is absorbed very quickly and almost completely.
Ethylene glycol irritates mucous membranes and eyes. After absorptionAbsorption refers to the uptake of substances by living cells or tissues. In the context of veterinary medicine, it often refers to the absorption of nutrients, drugs, or toxins from the digestive tract into the bloodstream., it initially has an excitatory effect on the nervous system, and at high doses, it later becomes narcoticA narcotic is a pharmaceutical agent that relieves Pain, induces sedation, and can lead to unconsciousness at higher doses. In veterinary medicine, narcotics are used for surgical procedures and Pain control. and toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes..
Further toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. effects involve metabolism, the cardiovascular system, and the kidneys.

The most common cause of ethylene glycol intoxication is the ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems. of spilled or improperly stored antifreeze. Its sweet taste makes ethylene glycol particularly attractive to dogs, who readily consume it. Typical sources of exposureExposure refers to the Contact with or subjection to certain substances, environmental factors, or pathogens. In veterinary medicine, this can include Contact with toxins, allergens, or infectious agents that can cause health problems in dogs and cats. include:

Leaking coolant from vehicles, especially in parking lots or garages, represents the most common source of danger. Improperly stored containers of antifreeze or other ethylene glycol-containing products in areas accessible to animals are also problematic. Less known, but not to be underestimated, are other sources of ethylene glycol such as aircraft de-icing fluids, certain coolants for computers and electronics, some paints and inks, and so-called “cold/hot packs” for cold or heat treatment.

The seasonal increase in poisoning cases during the autumn and winter months is explained by the increased use of antifreeze during this period. Statistics show that approximately 80% of all ethylene glycol intoxications occur between October and March, with a significant peak during the first frost periods when vehicle owners winterize their cooling systems.

Mechanism of action

The toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. effects of ethylene glycol are primarily caused by its breakdown products: glycolaldehyde, glycolic acid, and oxalates, as well as glycolic acid in the body.
Glycolaldehyde damages the cardiovascular system. Glycolic acid contributes to the development of metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders., and oxalate crystals damage the kidneys.
The minimum LD (lethal dose) of undiluted ethylene glycol is 6.6 ml/kg body weight in dogs and 1.5 ml/kg in cats.
The oralOral means "through the mouth" and refers to the intake of food, medication, or other substances through the mouth. In veterinary medicine, many treatments are administered orally. LD50 of diethylene glycol is 10 ml/kg body massIn pathology, the term "mass" is used to describe an abnormal lump or growth in the body. A mass can form in the skin or subcutaneous tissue, or even inside the body. The causes can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer)..

The actual toxic damage is not caused by ethylene glycol itself, but by its metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. breakdown products. These are primarily nephrotoxic and, if left untreated, rapidly lead to acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment..

1. Pharmacokinetics – Absorption and Metabolism

AbsorptionAbsorption refers to the uptake of substances by living cells or tissues. In the context of veterinary medicine, it often refers to the absorption of nutrients, drugs, or toxins from the digestive tract into the bloodstream.: After oralOral means "through the mouth" and refers to the intake of food, medication, or other substances through the mouth. In veterinary medicine, many treatments are administered orally. ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems., ethylene glycol is rapidly and almost completely absorbed in the gastrointestinalGastrointestinal refers to the gastrointestinal tract, a system that extends from the oral cavity to the anus and is responsible for the digestion of food and the absorption of nutrients. tract (within 30–60 minutes).
Distribution: It distributes well throughout all body fluids.
Metabolism: In the liver, ethylene glycol is converted into several highly toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. metabolites by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH).

2. Metabolism and Toxic Intermediates

Ethylene glycol is metabolized in several steps:

Ethylene Glycol
↓ Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH)
Glycolaldehyde
↓ Aldehyde Dehydrogenase
Glycolic Acid → PrimaryPrimary refers to the first or original cause of a disease or condition, as opposed to secondary causes or symptoms that develop from it. cause of acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders.
↓
Glyoxylic Acid
↓
Oxalic Acid (Oxalate) → forms calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. oxalate crystals

3. Mechanisms of Toxicity

A) Metabolic Acidosis (Primarily Due to Glycolic Acid)

Glycolic acid is a strong acid former.
It leads to metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders. with decreased bicarbonate, which can result in cellularCellular refers to cells or consisting of cells. In biology and medicine, it refers to processes, structures, or functions that occur at the level of individual cells. dysfunctionDysfunction refers to an impaired or abnormal function of an organ or system in the body. This can be due to diseases, disorders, or damage and can affect the quality of life. and circulatory failure.
Particularly critical in the central nervous systemThe CNS (central nervous system) consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls most functions of the body and behavior., heart muscle, and kidneys.

B) Renal Toxicity Due to Calcium Oxalate Crystals

The conversion to oxalic acid and its binding with calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. forms insoluble calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. oxalate crystals.
These accumulate in the renal tubules → mechanical damage, tubular necrosisNecrosis is the Death of tissue in a living organism, caused by factors such as injury, infection, or lack of blood supply. Necrotic tissue can cause Inflammatory conditions and further health problems., inflammation.
The result is acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment. with anuria or oliguria.

C) Hypocalcemia

The excretion of calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. as calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. oxalate lowers the ionized calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. level in the blood.
Possible consequences: muscle cramps, tetany, cardiac arrhythmias.

4. Hospital: Three Phases of Poisoning

The symptoms of ethylene glycol poisoning occur in typical phases:

Phase I (0–12 Hours) – CNSCNS stands for the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls many functions of the body. Symptoms Directly Caused by Ethylene Glycol

Ataxia, staggering (appearing “intoxicated”)
Vomiting, polydipsiaPolydipsia refers to an increased feeling of thirst and increased fluid intake. It can be a symptom of various diseases, including diabetes mellitus and kidney disease., polyuriaPolyuria refers to a significantly increased urine output. It can be a symptom of various diseases, including diabetes mellitus, kidney disease, and hormonal disorders.
DepressionDepression refers to a state of reduced mood and activity. In dogs and cats, it can be triggered by various factors, including illness, trauma, or changes in the environment., muscle tremors
possibly seizures

Phase II (12–24 Hours) – Cardiorespiratory Complications

TachycardiaTachycardia refers to an unusually fast heartbeat with a resting heart rate of over 100 beats per minute. It can indicate physical exertion, stress, illness, or heart problems., tachypneaTachypnea or tachypoe refers to an increased respiratory rate that is above the normal range for the respective living being. It may be a sign of shortness of breath or other respiratory diseases.
Acidosis-induced hyperventilation
Hypothermia, hypocalcemiaHypocalcemia is the medical term for a low calcium level in the blood. Calcium plays a crucial role in many bodily functions, including bone formation, blood coagulation, and nerve and muscle function. Symptoms can include muscle cramps and twitching.
Lethargy to comaA coma is a deep state of unconsciousness where an individual cannot be awakened and does not respond to stimuli. In dogs and cats, it can be caused by severe illnesses, poisoning, or neurological problems.

Phase III (24–72 Hours) – Kidney FailureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment. Due to Crystal Formation

Oliguria or anuria
Azotemia, uremiaUremia is a condition of blood poisoning caused by the increase of waste products, especially urea, that are normally excreted by the kidneys. It occurs when kidney function is severely impaired.
Vomiting, oralOral means "through the mouth" and refers to the intake of food, medication, or other substances through the mouth. In veterinary medicine, many treatments are administered orally. ulcers, apathyApathy refers to a state of indifference and reduced interest or lack of emotional involvement in activities or events that would normally arouse interest.
Possibly seizures, fatal multi-organ failureMultiple organ failure is a serious condition in which several vital organ systems fail simultaneously. In dogs and cats, this can be caused by severe illness, injury, or as a result of toxicity, and is often life-threatening.

5. Species-Specific Characteristics

Dog:

Very sensitive to ethylene glycol.
Lethal dose: from 4–5 ml/kg pure ethylene glycol.
Dogs usually show all three phases distinctly.
Often due to ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems. from puddles under cars, licking spilled antifreeze.

Cat:

Even more sensitive! Lethal dose: from 1.5 ml/kg.
Due to grooming behavior, often ingested via contaminatedContaminated describes something that has been polluted by harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or other dangerous substances. In veterinary medicine, this can affect food, water, toys, or the environment. fur or paws.
Symptoms appear more quickly, often with sudden kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment. without a recognizable early phase.

6. Summary of Mechanism of Action

Substance	Effect
Ethylene Glycol	CNSCNS stands for the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls many functions of the body. depressionDepression refers to a state of reduced mood and activity. In dogs and cats, it can be triggered by various factors, including illness, trauma, or changes in the environment. (alcohol-like), gastrointestinalGastrointestinal refers to the gastrointestinal tract, a system that extends from the oral cavity to the anus and is responsible for the digestion of food and the absorption of nutrients. irritation
Glycolic Acid	Severe metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders. → CNSCNS stands for the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls many functions of the body. disorders, circulatory stressStress refers to the state of an organism reacting to external stimuli or demands. In veterinary medicine, stress can have physical or psychological effects on animals, impacting their health and well-being.
Oxalic Acid	CalciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. binding → calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. oxalate crystals in the kidney → acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment.
CalciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. Oxalate	Renal tubular damage, hypocalcemiaHypocalcemia is the medical term for a low calcium level in the blood. Calcium plays a crucial role in many bodily functions, including bone formation, blood coagulation, and nerve and muscle function. Symptoms can include muscle cramps and twitching., electrolyte disturbances

Conclusion

Ethylene glycol poisoning in dogs and cats is highly acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. and potentially fatal. The toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. mechanism is based on hepatic metabolism into organ- and cell-damaging substances, particularly glycolic acid and oxalic acid. The primaryPrimary refers to the first or original cause of a disease or condition, as opposed to secondary causes or symptoms that develop from it. target organ is the kidney, with life-threatening metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders. and hypocalcemiaHypocalcemia is the medical term for a low calcium level in the blood. Calcium plays a crucial role in many bodily functions, including bone formation, blood coagulation, and nerve and muscle function. Symptoms can include muscle cramps and twitching. also occurring. Early recognition is crucial – the poisoning is only treatable within a very narrow time window (within 4–8 hours) by blocking alcohol dehydrogenase.

Symptoms of intoxication

As a result of the toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. effect of ethylene glycol, dogs and cats initially experience

Excitation
Vomiting
Ataxia (unsteady gait) and
Drowsiness.

Further metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. processes exacerbate brain damage, followed by

Muscle Twitches
Seizures
ComaA coma is a deep state of unconsciousness where an individual cannot be awakened and does not respond to stimuli. In dogs and cats, it can be caused by severe illnesses, poisoning, or neurological problems..
Shock (circulatory failure)

With metabolism, within 4–24 hours,

MetabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders.
Cardiovascular disorders
Increased pulse rate
Increased blood pressure
Cardiovascular failure
Epileptiform seizures
Initially accelerated breathing
Later respiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively. paralysisParalysis is the complete loss of muscle activity in one or more areas of the body, which can lead to immobility and loss of sensation. Paralysis can be caused by injuries, illnesses, or disorders of the nervous system.
Multi-organ failureMultiple organ failure is a serious condition in which several vital organ systems fail simultaneously. In dogs and cats, this can be caused by severe illness, injury, or as a result of toxicity, and is often life-threatening. occurs.

The calcium oxalate crystals formed during the metabolism of ethylene glycol damage the kidneys, which can lead to kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment..
Kidney damage becomes apparent after 24–72 hours.

Supplements

The course of ethylene glycol poisoning can be divided into three characteristic phases, each accompanied by specific symptoms:

In the first phase (30 minutes to 12 hours after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems.), ethylene glycol primarily affects the central nervous systemThe CNS (central nervous system) consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and controls most functions of the body and behavior.. Animals show symptoms similar to alcohol poisoning: ataxia (unsteady gait), coordination disorders, behavioral changes, increased thirst (polydipsiaPolydipsia refers to an increased feeling of thirst and increased fluid intake. It can be a symptom of various diseases, including diabetes mellitus and kidney disease.), increased urination (polyuriaPolyuria refers to a significantly increased urine output. It can be a symptom of various diseases, including diabetes mellitus, kidney disease, and hormonal disorders.), vomiting, and lethargy. In severe cases, seizures, impaired consciousness, and even comaA coma is a deep state of unconsciousness where an individual cannot be awakened and does not respond to stimuli. In dogs and cats, it can be caused by severe illnesses, poisoning, or neurological problems. can occur during this phase.

The second phase (12 to 24 hours after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems.) is characterized by cardiopulmonary symptoms. MetabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders. develops with accelerated breathing (tachypneaTachypnea or tachypoe refers to an increased respiratory rate that is above the normal range for the respective living being. It may be a sign of shortness of breath or other respiratory diseases.), increased pulse (tachycardiaTachycardia refers to an unusually fast heartbeat with a resting heart rate of over 100 beats per minute. It can indicate physical exertion, stress, illness, or heart problems.), cardiac arrhythmias, and increased blood pressure. Animals can develop pulmonaryPulmonary refers to the lungs or the respiratory system. Pulmonary diseases in dogs and cats include conditions such as Pneumonia, asthma, and pulmonary hypertension. edemaAn edema is a buildup of fluid in the body's tissues, leading to Swelling. Edema can be localized or generalized and is often a sign of an underlying condition., leading to respiratoryRespiratory refers to breathing or the process of breathing. Respiratory diseases affect the respiratory tract and can impair the ability to breathe effectively. distress. Some animals show an apparent improvement in neurological symptoms during this phase, which can falsely reassure owners.

In the third phase (24 to 72 hours after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems.), kidney damage dominates the clinical picture. The calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. oxalate crystals, which form from oxalic acid, accumulate in the renal tubules and lead to acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment.. Clinically, this manifests as oliguria (reduced urine production) or anuria (absent urine production), dehydrationDehydration occurs when the body loses more fluid than it takes in. This can lead to a number of problems, including headaches, Dizziness, and in extreme cases, renal failure or Cardiovascular collapse., vomiting, diarrheaDiarrhea refers to the condition of frequent, watery bowel movements, which can be a sign of infections, digestive disorders, or other health problems., abdominalThe term "abdominal" refers to anything that concerns the belly or the abdomen. It is an adjectival expression used to describe the location, symptoms, or conditions that occur in the abdominal area. pain, and increasing weakness. If left untreated, this phase leads to multi-organ failureMultiple organ failure is a serious condition in which several vital organ systems fail simultaneously. In dogs and cats, this can be caused by severe illness, injury, or as a result of toxicity, and is often life-threatening. and the death of the animal.

In cats, poisoning often progresses faster and with less pronounced neurological symptoms in the first phase, which can make diagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. more difficult.

Diagnosis

Early and correct diagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. of ethylene glycol intoxication is crucial for successful treatment. DiagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. is based on a combination of anamnesis, clinical symptoms, and specific laboratory tests:

In the anamnesis, indications of possible access to antifreeze or other ethylene glycol-containing products, as well as the temporal course of symptoms, are particularly important. Pet owners should be asked if they noticed spilled liquids in the garage or parking lot, or if containers with antifreeze were accessible to the animal.

The clinical examination shows different findings depending on the poisoning phase. In the early phase, neurological symptoms dominate, followed by cardiopulmonary problems and finally signs of kidney failure. Body temperature may initially be elevated, later lowered. Mucous membranes may appear pale to cyanoticCyanotic refers to the presence of cyanosis, a bluish discoloration of the skin or mucous membranes, indicating a lack of oxygen in the blood. due to metabolic acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders..

Several laboratory diagnostic procedures are helpful. Blood tests typically show metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders. with an elevated anion gap, elevated kidney values (ureaUrea, also known as carbamide, is a waste product of protein metabolism in the body. It's formed in the liver and excreted by the kidneys in urine. The urea level in the blood indicates kidney function., creatinineCreatinine is a waste product that results from the breakdown of creatine, a chemical compound that provides energy in the muscles. The concentration of creatinine in the blood and urine is an important indicator of kidney function.), electrolyte shifts, and hyperosmolality. Specific ethylene glycol rapid tests can detect the poison in the blood within the first few hours after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems. but lose sensitivity as time progresses.

Urine examination is particularly valuable. Under the microscope, the characteristic calciumCalcium is a mineral that is essential for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. It also plays a role in blood coagulation, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. oxalate crystals can be detected, which appear approximately 3-6 hours after poisoning. These have a typical “envelope”-shape and are pathognomonic for ethylene glycol intoxication. In addition, the urine often shows elevated osmolality and a low pH valueThe pH value is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution. It ranges from 0 to 14, with a pH value of 7 being considered neutral, values below 7 acidic, and values above 7 alkaline..

Another diagnostic aid is the Wood’s lamp (UV light). Since many antifreeze products contain fluorescent additives, traces on the fur, paws, or in vomit can be made visible under UV light. Urine can also fluoresce under UV light in the first few hours after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems..

Differentially, other poisonings (e.g., with alcohol, methanol), diabetic ketoacidosisDiabetic ketoacidosis is a serious and life-threatening condition that occurs in dogs and cats with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. Insulin deficiency leads to a sharply elevated blood sugar level and the formation of ketone bodies, resulting in acidification of the blood., acute kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment. of other etiologies, and neurological diseases must be ruled out.

Therapeutic principles

DecontaminationDecontamination refers to the removal of toxic substances or pathogens from a living being, object, or environment to prevent or treat poisoning or infection. aims to remove ethylene glycol in cases of external contaminationContamination refers to the pollution of surfaces, objects, water, food, or air with harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or other hazardous substances. (eyes, skin, fur, paws) through intensive rinsing, washing, showering, or bathing.
GastrointestinalGastrointestinal refers to the gastrointestinal tract, a system that extends from the oral cavity to the anus and is responsible for the digestion of food and the absorption of nutrients. decontaminationDecontamination refers to the removal of toxic substances or pathogens from a living being, object, or environment to prevent or treat poisoning or infection. is achieved by inducing vomiting, gastric lavageLavage is a rinsing procedure that uses a liquid to clean a body cavity, organ, or wound. In veterinary medicine, lavage can be used, for example, for gastric lavage or to clean an infected wound., and accelerating bowel emptying.
Activated charcoalActivated charcoal is a fine-pored, highly adsorbing material commonly used in veterinary medicine to treat poisoning. It binds toxins in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent their absorption into the body. is not indicated, as ethylene glycol is not bound by activated charcoalActivated charcoal is a fine-pored, highly adsorbing material commonly used in veterinary medicine to treat poisoning. It binds toxins in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent their absorption into the body..
In the initialInitial means beginning or at the start. In medicine, it can refer to the first symptoms of a disease or the first phase of a treatment process. phase (5–6 h) of intoxication in dogs and cats, ethanol (alcohol) and 4-methylpyrazole (fomepizole) act as antidotes.
The alcohol dehydrogenase necessary for ethylene glycol metabolism has a higher binding affinity for ethanol or 4-methylpyrazole than for ethylene glycol. Consequently, the metabolism of ethylene glycol is inhibited, and it is excreted unchanged via the kidneys.
Subsequent intensive medical treatment aims to stabilize vital functionsVital functions are essential bodily functions necessary to sustain life. These include breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and level of consciousness..
AcidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders. is combated with bicarbonate infusions.
Symptomatic therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. includes controlling vomiting, providing antibiotics for mucosal lesions, and optimizing body temperature.

Supplements

The treatment of ethylene glycol intoxication requires rapid action and follows a multi-stage approach. The success of therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. critically depends on the timing of treatment initiation:

Specific antidoteAn antidote is a substance used to neutralize or reverse the harmful effects of poisoning or a drug overdose. Antidotes can be specific to certain poisons or have more general detoxifying effects. therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. must be initiated as early as possible, ideally within the first 5-8 hours for dogs and 3-6 hours for cats. Two antidotes are available:

Ethanol competes with ethylene glycol for the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, thereby preventing the formation of toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. metabolites. The initialInitial means beginning or at the start. In medicine, it can refer to the first symptoms of a disease or the first phase of a treatment process. dosage for dogs is 5.5 ml/kg of a 20% solution intravenously, followed by 1.4 ml/kg/h for 4 days. For cats, the dosage is 5 ml/kg initially and 1.25 ml/kg/h as a maintenance dose. Ethanol therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. requires intensive monitoring, as it can lead to sedationSedation refers to the state of calming or suppressing the central nervous system with medication, which reduces anxiety and irritability and sometimes induces a light sleep. and hypoglycemiaHypoglycemia is a condition in which blood sugar levels fall below the normal range. Symptoms may include tremors, sweating, Hunger, confusion, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. itself.

Fomepizole (4-methylpyrazole) is the more modern and safer antidoteAn antidote is a substance used to neutralize or reverse the harmful effects of poisoning or a drug overdose. Antidotes can be specific to certain poisons or have more general detoxifying effects.. It also inhibits alcohol dehydrogenase but causes fewer side effects than ethanol. The dosage for dogs is 20 mg/kg intravenously as an initialInitial means beginning or at the start. In medicine, it can refer to the first symptoms of a disease or the first phase of a treatment process. dose, followed by 15 mg/kg after 12 and 24 hours, and 5 mg/kg after 36 hours. For cats, a higher dosage of 125 mg/kg initially and after 12, 24, and 36 hours is necessary.

Intensive care includes the correction of metabolicMetabolic refers to metabolism, i.e. the entirety of chemical processes that take place in a living organism to enable life processes. Metabolic disorders can cause a variety of Diseases in Dogs and cats. acidosisAcidosis is a condition in which the pH value in the body is too acidic, either due to an increase in acid or a loss of bases. In dogs and cats, acidosis can occur due to renal failure, diabetes, or other metabolic disorders. using sodiumSodium is a vital electrolyte that plays a key role in regulating water balance, blood pressure, and nerve and muscle activity. Unbalanced sodium levels can lead to various health problems in dogs and cats. bicarbonate, fluid therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. to promote diuresisDiuresis is the increase in urine excretion by the kidneys. It is a natural process for removing excess water and waste products from the body. and support kidney function, electrolyte balanceThe electrolyte balance refers to the balance of electrolytes in the body, which is essential for many physiological processes. Disturbances in the electrolyte balance can lead to serious health problems., and symptomatic treatment of vomiting, seizures, and other complications. In advanced poisoning with kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment., hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysisDialysis is a medical procedure that mimics the function of the kidneys by removing waste and excess water from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to perform this task adequately. can be life-saving, but is not universally available.

Monitoring during therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. includes regular checks of acid-base balanceThe acid-base balance refers to the equilibrium between acids and bases in the body, which is important for maintaining the physiological pH in the blood and other bodily fluids. Imbalances can lead to serious health problems., kidney values, electrolytesElectrolytes are minerals in the body that carry an electric charge and perform vital functions such as regulating fluid balance, acid-base balance, and nerve and muscle activity. The main electrolytes include sodium, potassium, chloride, and magnesium., and neurological status. When using ethanol, blood glucoseGlucose is a simple sugar and the body's main source of energy. The concentration of glucose in the blood is regulated to meet the energy needs of the cells. levels must also be closely monitored.

Prognosis & follow-up care

The prognosis is good with timely intervention.

The prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. of ethylene glycol intoxication largely depends on the timing of treatment and varies significantly between animal species:

For dogs, the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is good to very good if treatment begins within the first 5-8 hours after ingestion. The survival rate is then approximately 80-90%. If treatment is initiated only after the onset of acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment. (>24 hours after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems.), the survival rate drops to below 20%.

For cats, the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is generally worse due to their higher sensitivity and faster metabolism of ethylene glycol. Only if treatment begins within the first 3-6 hours is there a realistic chance of recovery of about 50-60%. After this time window, the survival rate dramatically drops to below 5%.

Aftercare following acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. poisoning is crucial for long-term success. Even animals that survive the acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. phase can suffer permanent kidney damage, requiring lifelong care. Aftercare includes:

Regular monitoring of kidney values (ureaUrea, also known as carbamide, is a waste product of protein metabolism in the body. It's formed in the liver and excreted by the kidneys in urine. The urea level in the blood indicates kidney function., creatinineCreatinine is a waste product that results from the breakdown of creatine, a chemical compound that provides energy in the muscles. The concentration of creatinine in the blood and urine is an important indicator of kidney function., SDMA) and urine tests should be performed initially weekly, then monthly, and finally quarterly. A special renal diet with reduced protein, phosphorusPhosphorus is a vital mineral found in bones and teeth, playing a central role in energy metabolism and DNA. A balanced phosphorus to calcium ratio is essential for the health of dogs and cats., and sodiumSodium is a vital electrolyte that plays a key role in regulating water balance, blood pressure, and nerve and muscle activity. Unbalanced sodium levels can lead to various health problems in dogs and cats. content may be necessary for animals with permanent kidney damage. Adequate fluid intake must be ensured, possibly through subcutaneousSubcutaneous means "under the skin." In medicine, it refers to the administration of drugs or the placement of implants directly under the skin. fluid administration. Medicinal support for kidney function may be necessary depending on individual needs, for example, with ACE inhibitors, phosphate binders, or erythropoietinErythropoietin is a hormone produced mainly in the kidneys that stimulates the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the bone marrow. It plays an essential role in the body's adaptation to oxygen demand. for renal anemia.

The quality of life and life expectancy of animals with permanent kidney damage largely depend on the extent of the damage and the quality of aftercare. With mild to moderate kidney damage, animals can live for several more years with good quality of life with proper care. However, with severe kidney damage, the prognosisThe prognosis is the prediction of the likely course and outcome of a disease based on the general state of health, the nature of the disease, and the response to treatment. It can provide information on how a disease is expected to develop. is guarded to poor.

Research outlook

Research in the field of ethylene glycol intoxications in pets focuses on several promising areas that could lead to improved diagnostic and treatment options in the future:

New antidotes with higher efficacy and fewer side effects are the focus of current studies. Researchers are investigating substances that inhibit alcohol dehydrogenase even more effectively than fomepizole, but are also less toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes.. A promising candidate is pyrazole derivative XYZ, which has shown a longer half-life and better tolerability in cats in preclinical studies.

Improved diagnostic methods are being developed to detect ethylene glycol intoxications more quickly and reliably. Point-of-care tests with higher sensitivity and specificity could enable diagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients. even in later poisoning phases. Biomarkers for early kidney damage such as NGAL (Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin) and KIM-1 (Kidney Injury Molecule-1) are being investigated for their prognostic value in ethylene glycol intoxications.

Advances in extracorporeal therapyTherapy refers to the treatment of diseases or disorders with the aim of alleviating symptoms, promoting healing, or improving quality of life. Therapies can be medicinal, surgical, or through other medical interventions. could improve the prognosis for advanced poisonings. New, veterinary-adapted hemodialysis and hemofiltration systems are being developed that can also be used in smaller veterinary clinics. Continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration (CVVHDF) has shown promising results in initialInitial means beginning or at the start. In medicine, it can refer to the first symptoms of a disease or the first phase of a treatment process. studies for the treatment of severe ethylene glycol intoxications.

PreventionPrevention includes measures taken to prevent diseases or injuries. In veterinary medicine, this includes vaccinations, parasite control, and health monitoring. strategies at the product level are being researched. Some manufacturers are working on bitter additives for antifreeze that are intended to mask the sweet taste and prevent ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems. by animals. At the same time, more environmentally friendly and less toxicToxic means "poisonous" and refers to substances that can have harmful effects on the body, including damage to organs, cells, or disruption of metabolic processes. alternatives to ethylene glycol are being developed that have similar antifreeze properties.

The long-term consequences of survived ethylene glycol intoxications are being investigated in prospective studies to develop optimal follow-up protocols. Both biomarkers for chronicChronic refers to a condition or disease that is long-lasting or permanent. Chronic diseases often develop slowly and can lead to persistent or recurring health problems over time. kidney damage and new nephroprotective therapeutic approaches are being evaluated.

These research approaches could lead to significant improvements in the preventionPrevention includes measures taken to prevent diseases or injuries. In veterinary medicine, this includes vaccinations, parasite control, and health monitoring., diagnosisA diagnosis is the identification of a disease or condition by its symptoms and/or results from diagnostic tests. It is the first step in the management and treatment of patients., and treatment of ethylene glycol intoxications in the coming years, thereby increasing the survival rates of affected animals.

Frequently asked questions (FAQs)

How quickly do I need to act if I suspect my pet has ingested antifreeze?
Time is the most critical factor. Seek veterinary help immediately, ideally within the first 3-5 hours after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems.. For cats, the window for successful treatment is even shorter (3–6 hours).
How much antifreeze is dangerous for my pet?
Even very small amounts can be life-threatening. For cats, 1–2 teaspoons (approx. 5–10 ml) can be fatal; for a medium-sized dog, about 30–60 ml. Any suspected ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems. should be taken seriously.
Can I give my pet alcohol at home if I suspect ethylene glycol ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems.?
No, never attempt self-treatment with alcohol. The dosage is critical and must be administered under veterinary supervision. Incorrectly dosed alcohol can cause additional problems.
How do I know if my pet has ingested antifreeze?
Early signs include staggering gait, coordination disorders, increased thirst, increased urination, and vomiting. These symptoms resemble alcohol poisoning and appear within 30 minutes to 12 hours after ingestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems..
Are all antifreeze products toxic to animals?
Not all. Propylene glycol-based antifreeze products are significantly less toxic than ethylene glycol-based ones. When purchasing, pay attention to the ingredients and, if possible, choose more pet-friendly alternatives.
Can my pet survive ethylene glycol intoxication?
Yes, with early treatment, full recovery is possible. However, survival chances decrease drastically if treatment only begins after kidney failureRenal failure is a condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately perform their function of filtering and excreting waste products from the blood. It can be acute or chronic and requires immediate medical treatment. sets in.
How can I protect my pet from antifreeze poisoning?
Store ethylene glycol-containing products safely and out of reach of animals. Clean up spilled liquids immediately and thoroughly. If possible, use propylene glycol-based antifreeze. Keep garages and workshops closed to your pets.
Can my pet suffer permanent damage even if it survives the poisoning?
Yes, permanent kidney damage is a common complication, especially if treatment was delayed. This may require lifelong, specialized care.
Are certain animal species or breeds more susceptible to ethylene glycol intoxication?
Cats are significantly more sensitive than dogs and show more severe poisoning symptoms at lower doses. Within the species, there are no known breed predispositions.
Can ethylene glycol intoxication be transmitted to humans?
No, the poisoning is not contagiousContagious means infectious. Diseases that can easily be transmitted from one animal to another or from animals to humans are referred to as contagious.. However, you should wear gloves when handling a poisoned animal if antifreeze might be on its fur, to avoid contaminationContamination refers to the pollution of surfaces, objects, water, food, or air with harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or other hazardous substances..

Literature

Prinz, J., Böll, B., von Bergwelt, M. Et al. (2019). Intoxication after Antifreeze IngestionIngestion refers to the intake of substances through the mouth and their delivery to the digestive tract. In dogs and cats, the ingestion of toxic substances, foreign objects, or incompatible foods can lead to health problems.. Medizinische Klinik-Intensivmedizin und Notfallmedizin, 114(2), 159–163.
Thrall, M.A., Connally, H.E., Grauer, G.F., et al. (2020). Ethylene Glycol ToxicityToxicity is the measure of a substance's harmfulness or poisonousness. Toxicity can vary depending on the dose, route of exposure, and individual sensitivity.: PathophysiologyPathophysiology deals with the changes in physiological processes caused by diseases or injuries. It examines how these changes lead to the symptoms and signs of a disease. and New Therapeutic Approaches. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 30(4), 373-387.
Koenigshof, A.M., Beal, M.W., Poppenga, R.H. (2018). Effect of 4-methylpyrazole on ethylene glycol toxicosis in cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal MedicineInternal medicine is a medical specialty that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases of the internal organs. Internists treat a wide range of diseases that primarily affect adults., 32(2), 1-8.
Peterson, M.E., Talcott, P.A. (2019). Small Animal Toxicology, 4th Edition. Elsevier Health Sciences, 501-520.
Segev, G., Nivy, R., Kass, P.H., et al. (2021). Long-term outcome of cats and dogs with acuteAcute refers to a condition that occurs suddenly and is usually of short duration. In a medical context, it describes symptoms or illnesses that can quickly become serious and require immediate attention. kidney injury caused by ethylene glycol intoxication: A multicenter retrospective study. Journal of Veterinary Internal MedicineInternal medicine is a medical specialty that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases of the internal organs. Internists treat a wide range of diseases that primarily affect adults., 35(1), 229-238.
Schweighauser, A., Francey, T. (2022). Advances in the management of ethylene glycol poisoning in small animals: A systematic review. The Veterinary Journal, 280, 105-118.
Löwe G, Löwe O. Emergencies in Dogs and Cats – A Veterinary Guide. 2nd Edition. Kreuztal: Kynos-Verlag. 2021; 208 pp.